Women’s Right to Vote in Germany
Women’s Day / November 12, (1918)
German women line up in Berlin to vote for the first time, in 1919.
When did women get the right to vote in Germany?
The struggle for women’s suffrage in Germany unfolded against the backdrop of profound social and political transformations in Europe during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. German women secured the right to vote on November 12, 1918, when the newly formed Council of People’s Deputies announced universal suffrage for all German citizens aged 20 and older. This momentous declaration made Germany one of the first major European powers to grant women full voting rights, though several smaller European nations had already taken this step. The achievement came after decades of organized activism, set against the turbulent context of World War I and the collapse of the German Empire.
Early Foundations: Women’s Movements in 19th Century Germany
The roots of the German women’s suffrage movement can be traced to the broader women’s movement (Frauenbewegung) that emerged in the mid-19th century. This movement developed in two main branches:
- The bourgeois women’s movement (bürgerliche Frauenbewegung), which focused on educational and professional opportunities for middle-class women
- The proletarian women’s movement (proletarische Frauenbewegung), aligned with the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and addressing the needs of working-class women
Initially, these movements concentrated on practical concerns such as access to education, professional training, and labor protections rather than direct political rights. This reflected both the strategic priorities of women activists and the significant obstacles to political participation in the authoritarian German Empire.
Key early organizations included:
- The General German Women’s Association (Allgemeiner Deutscher Frauenverein), founded in 1865 by Louise Otto-Peters and focused primarily on education and economic independence
- The Federation of German Women’s Associations (Bund Deutscher Frauenvereine), established in 1894 as an umbrella organization that eventually grew to represent over 500,000 women
Legal Obstacles: The Prussian Law of Association
A significant legal barrier to women’s political organization in Germany was the Prussian Law of Association (Vereinsgesetz), which prohibited women from joining political organizations or attending political meetings. This law, extended to the entire German Empire after unification in 1871, severely constrained women’s political activism.
The law remained in force until 1908, when it was finally repealed, allowing women to:
- Officially join political parties
- Attend political meetings
- Organize explicitly for political causes, including suffrage
This legal change marked a turning point, enabling the women’s movement to more openly advocate for voting rights.
The Growth of the German Suffrage Movement: 1902-1914
The explicit campaign for women’s suffrage in Germany gained momentum in the early 20th century:
- In 1902, the German Union for Women’s Suffrage (Deutscher Verband für Frauenstimmrecht) was established as the first organization dedicated specifically to voting rights
- Additional suffrage organizations formed in the following years, representing different ideological perspectives
- By 1907, the Social Democratic Party officially included women’s suffrage in its party platform
- The German branch of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance was established in 1913
The movement faced divided approaches and priorities:
- The bourgeois women’s organizations often advocated for limited suffrage based on education or property qualifications
- Socialist women, led by figures like Clara Zetkin, insisted on universal suffrage regardless of class or property
- Some conservative women’s groups opposed suffrage entirely or argued that women needed to prove their political maturity before receiving voting rights
Despite these divisions, by the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the movement had built considerable momentum and organizational strength.
World War I and Its Impact: 1914-1918
The First World War profoundly altered the landscape for women’s suffrage in Germany:
- Women took on new economic roles in factories, agriculture, and public services
- Traditional gender roles were disrupted as women managed households and communities in men’s absence
- Wartime patriotic service strengthened arguments for women’s full citizenship
- The humanitarian crisis and economic hardships led to increased women’s protest, particularly in the later war years
During the war, suffrage activism was largely subordinated to the national war effort, with many women’s organizations suspending campaign activities in favor of patriotic service. However, as the war dragged on and conditions deteriorated on the home front, women’s political activism reemerged in new forms, including:
- Food riots and protests against shortages
- Anti-war activism among socialist women
- Labor actions in female-dominated industries
- Calls for democratic reforms as part of a broader peace program
By 1917-1918, as Germany faced military defeat and internal revolution, women’s demands for political rights became integrated into broader democratic reforms.
Revolution and Enfranchisement: November 1918
The German Revolution of November 1918 created the breakthrough for women’s suffrage. Following military defeat, the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II, and widespread unrest, a provisional government known as the Council of People’s Deputies took power. On November 12, 1918, just one day after the armistice ending World War I, this council issued a proclamation “To the German People” that established:
- Universal, equal, direct, and secret suffrage for all German citizens, regardless of gender
- A minimum voting age of 20
- Proportional representation
- Elections for a constituent assembly to create a new democratic constitution
This proclamation, drafted by the Social Democrat Friedrich Ebert, was subsequently codified in the Electoral Law of November 30, 1918. The speed of this decision reflected both the long-standing commitment of Social Democrats to women’s suffrage and the revolutionary context that enabled rapid democratic reforms.
First Elections with Women’s Participation: January 1919
German women exercised their newly won voting rights for the first time in the elections to the National Assembly (Nationalversammlung) on January 19, 1919. These elections produced several notable results:
- Approximately 82% of eligible women turned out to vote, a remarkably high participation rate
- 37 women were elected to the 423-member National Assembly (about 9% of representatives)
- Women delegates represented diverse political parties, including Social Democrats, Democrats, and the Catholic Center Party
- The prominent Social Democrat Marie Juchacz became the first woman to speak in a German parliament on February 19, 1919
The elected National Assembly went on to draft the Weimar Constitution, which explicitly confirmed women’s equal citizenship in Article 109: “Men and women have fundamentally the same civil rights and duties.” This constitutional guarantee formalized the achievement of women’s suffrage as part of Germany’s new democratic order.
Women’s Suffrage in the European Context
Germany’s adoption of women’s suffrage in 1918 must be understood within the broader European context. While Germany was among the first major European powers to enfranchise women, several smaller European nations had already taken this step:
- Finland was the first European country to grant women’s suffrage in 1906 (while still a Grand Duchy of the Russian Empire), allowing women to both vote and stand for parliament
- Norway granted limited women’s suffrage in 1907 and full suffrage in 1913
- Denmark extended voting rights to women in 1915
- Russia briefly granted women the right to vote in 1917 following the February Revolution
- Austria established women’s suffrage almost simultaneously with Germany in November 1918
- Poland included women’s suffrage in its founding as an independent state in 1918
- The Netherlands granted women the right to stand for election in 1917 and the right to vote in 1919
- Luxembourg introduced women’s suffrage in 1919
- Czechoslovakia included women’s suffrage in its founding constitution in 1920
Other major European powers lagged considerably:
- The United Kingdom granted limited women’s suffrage in 1918 (for women over 30 with property qualifications) and equal suffrage with men in 1928
- France did not enfranchise women until 1944
- Italy extended voting rights to women in 1945
- Belgium granted women full voting rights in 1948
- Greece enacted women’s suffrage in 1952
- Switzerland, despite its democratic reputation, did not grant women voting rights at the federal level until 1971
This varied timeline illustrates that women’s suffrage in Europe often coincided with broader democratic transitions, particularly those following World War I. Germany’s adoption of women’s suffrage came amid a wave of similar reforms across Central and Northern Europe in the immediate post-war period.
Leading Figures in the German Women’s Suffrage Movement
The campaign for women’s voting rights in Germany involved numerous dedicated activists representing different ideological perspectives:
- Clara Zetkin (1857-1933) – A prominent socialist and international women’s rights advocate, Zetkin edited the SPD women’s newspaper “Die Gleichheit” (Equality) and helped organize the first International Women’s Day in 1911. She consistently advocated for universal suffrage regardless of class distinctions.
- Anita Augspurg (1857-1943) – A radical feminist, lawyer, and pacifist, Augspurg co-founded the German Union for Women’s Suffrage in 1902. She represented the more militant wing of the bourgeois women’s movement and advocated for comprehensive legal reforms beyond voting rights.
- Lida Gustava Heymann (1868-1943) – Partner of Augspurg and co-founder of the German branch of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, Heymann was a wealthy philanthropist who funded numerous women’s causes and edited the feminist journal “Frauenstimmrecht” (Women’s Suffrage).
- Marie Juchacz (1879-1956) – A Social Democrat who became the first woman to address the German parliament after being elected in 1919. Juchacz later founded the Workers’ Welfare Association (Arbeiterwohlfahrt), a major social welfare organization that continues today.
- Minna Cauer (1841-1922) – Founder of the radical democratic “Union for Progressive Women’s Associations” and editor of the feminist newspaper “Die Frauenbewegung” (The Women’s Movement), Cauer represented the radical wing of the bourgeois women’s movement.
- Helene Lange (1848-1930) – A moderate reformer who focused primarily on educational opportunities but came to support women’s suffrage as part of a broader agenda of social reform. Lange led the Federation of German Women’s Associations during a critical period of its development.
- Louise Zietz (1865-1922) – A working-class activist who became one of the first women elected to leadership positions in the Social Democratic Party and later served in the National Assembly, representing the interests of working women.
Women’s Political Participation in the Weimar Republic: 1919-1933
The achievement of women’s suffrage opened new avenues for political participation in the Weimar Republic:
- Women maintained a steady presence in the Reichstag (German parliament), with representation ranging from 6% to 10% of seats
- Female politicians emerged as important voices on issues including social welfare, education, healthcare, and labor rights
- Women voters constituted a majority of the electorate due to war casualties among men
- All major political parties established women’s sections and recruited female candidates, though with varying degrees of enthusiasm
However, the promise of political equality faced significant challenges:
- Traditional gender roles remained powerful, limiting women’s political advancement
- Economic crises repeatedly shifted attention away from women’s concerns
- Conservative backlash against the “new woman” of the Weimar era included criticism of women’s political participation
- Parties often placed women candidates in unwinnable positions on electoral lists
By the late 1920s, women’s voting patterns had largely aligned with broader social and religious divisions rather than creating a unified “women’s bloc.” Catholic women typically supported the Center Party, working-class women favored the Social Democrats or Communists, and middle-class Protestant women increasingly supported conservative or nationalist parties.
The End of Democracy: Nazi Period 1933-1945
The Nazi seizure of power in 1933 rapidly reversed the democratic gains of the Weimar period, though women’s formal right to vote remained:
- All democratic elections were abolished after March 1933
- Women’s organizations were either disbanded or forcibly incorporated into Nazi-controlled structures
- The Nazi ideology explicitly rejected political equality, emphasizing women’s “separate sphere” centered on “Kinder, Küche, Kirche” (children, kitchen, church)
- Most women parliamentarians were forced from office, with many facing exile or persecution
The Nazi regime maintained the façade of electoral participation through plebiscites with predetermined outcomes, in which women could technically vote. However, meaningful political participation was eliminated for all citizens, regardless of gender.
Rebuilding Democracy: Post-1945 Developments
After the defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945, women’s voting rights were restored as part of the reestablishment of democracy:
- In the Western occupation zones (later the Federal Republic/West Germany):
- The Basic Law of 1949 explicitly guaranteed gender equality in Article 3
- Women’s suffrage was immediately reinstated in local and state elections beginning in 1946
- Female representation in early parliaments remained relatively low (7-10%)
- Electoral participation gradually equalized between men and women over several decades
- In the Soviet occupation zone (later the German Democratic Republic/East Germany):
- Women’s formal political equality was strongly emphasized in official ideology
- The constitution guaranteed equal rights
- The state promoted women’s employment and established extensive childcare systems
- Despite high numbers of women in the parliament (Volkskammer), genuine political power remained concentrated in the male-dominated Socialist Unity Party leadership
After German reunification in 1990, women’s political participation has continued to evolve:
- Germany elected its first female chancellor, Angela Merkel, in 2005
- Gender quotas have been adopted by several political parties
- As of 2023, women constitute approximately 35% of the Bundestag members
- Local and regional parliaments show significant variation in female representation
Legacy and Contemporary Significance
The achievement of women’s suffrage in Germany in 1918 represents a watershed moment in the country’s democratic development. The right to vote came as part of a broader revolutionary transformation and established the principle of women’s equal citizenship that has remained fundamental to German democracy despite the Nazi-era interruption.
Several aspects of this history deserve particular emphasis:
- The connection between women’s suffrage and broader democratic reforms, with voting rights emerging from revolutionary change rather than gradual reform
- The importance of diverse organizational strategies, combining bourgeois and working-class women’s movements despite their differences
- The impact of World War I in accelerating social changes that made women’s political participation more acceptable
- The vulnerability of women’s political rights during periods of democratic breakdown
- The continued relevance of equal political representation, with contemporary Germany still working to achieve gender parity in political institutions
The history of women’s suffrage in Germany illustrates both the power of organized activism and the influence of broader historical forces in shaping democratic development. From the first vote cast by German women in January 1919 to the election of the country’s first female chancellor nearly a century later, German women’s political participation has reflected the complex interplay of gender, citizenship, and democracy in modern European history.
Looking Foward
Women’s Right to Vote in Germany
German women gained the right to vote on November 12, 1918, amid the revolutionary transformation following World War I. This achievement placed Germany among the earlier European nations to grant women’s suffrage, though it followed pioneering countries like Finland (1906), Norway (1913), and Denmark (1915). The enfranchisement of German women came as part of a broader democratic revolution rather than through gradual reform, distinguishing it from developments in countries like Britain or the United States.
The history of women’s voting rights in Germany demonstrates how suffrage movements were shaped by distinct national contexts while participating in transnational exchanges of ideas and strategies. The German case highlights the importance of revolutionary moments in creating opportunities for democratic expansion, the significance of diverse organizational approaches combining bourgeois and socialist women’s movements, and the fragility of democratic achievements in the face of authoritarian threats.
Today, over a century after German women first cast their ballots, their right to political participation stands as a fundamental democratic principle, even as the country continues to work toward full gender equality in political representation and leadership. The struggle for women’s suffrage represents not just a historical milestone but an ongoing commitment to expanding and deepening democratic citizenship.
The Roles and Representations of Women in the Weimar Republic
by Tori Maher
All aspects of German life were shaped by the upheaval and challenges faced during the Weimar Republic. Created in 1918 out of the defeat and chaos of the First World War, the Weimar Republic looked to be a rejection of old Imperial traditions and an embrace of modern democracy. During the years 1918 to 1932, no other group was affected as much as German women, as they bore the brunt of societies expectations for the future stability and health of the German nation. Women’s roles and responsibilities changed in reaction to the different challenges and opportunities that were afforded to them during this turbulent period of German history.
Female suffrage
One of the most defining features of the new republic was the creation of a democratic Weimar Constitution in 1919. The Weimar Constitution gave women a relatively progressive power in 1919, the right to vote, which drastically altered how women were viewed and the roles they could undertake. The vote gave women a sense of emancipation they had never had before, but it also allowed them to have a practical say in the political decisions that were being made for them. 49 women were even elected to the parliament in the first elections held in 1919, showing German society that women and men believed in the important role women could play within the institutions of power. While female suffrage and the newly elected female voices in parliament had the ability to influence party policies, the vote had not altered the traditional values of German society that the First World War had helped to cement. “Motherly” politics that focused on the family unit became staples of numerous political parties as they were seen as a way to protect and preserve the moral fabric of German society. While the gesture of female emancipation and suffrage marked a shift in attitudes towards women, it was ultimately met with a traditional backlash. The German constitution retained Imperial laws such as criminalisation of abortion and limited access to birth control, laws which were viewed as essential for promoting marriage and repopulating Germany after the war.
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