Gender Gap
Netherlands
The gender gap in the Netherlands remains significant, revealing persistent inequalities in leadership, pay, and representation
The Netherlands has long cultivated an international reputation as a progressive nation. Known for its liberal policies and seemingly egalitarian society, the country is often perceived as a leader in gender equality. However, a closer examination reveals a more complex picture with notable gender disparities persisting across various domains. This article explores the multifaceted nature of the gender gap in the Netherlands, analyzing its manifestations in employment, education, political representation, and other key areas, while placing these findings in both historical and international contexts.
Labor Market Participation and Employment
Employment Rates
The Netherlands boasts high overall employment rates, but significant gender differences remain. According to Statistics Netherlands (CBS), in 2023, the employment rate for men aged 15-75 was 74.6%, compared to 66.3% for women—an 8.3 percentage point gap (CBS, 2023).
This gap, while substantial, represents considerable progress from historical levels. In 1985, only 35% of Dutch women participated in the labor market, compared to 76% of men—a gap of 41 percentage points (Social and Cultural Planning Office, 2018). The dramatic increase in female labor participation represents one of the most significant social changes in Dutch society over the past decades.
Part-Time Work: The “Dutch Part-Time Paradox”
A defining characteristic of the Dutch labor market is the prevalence of part-time work, particularly among women. The Netherlands has the highest rate of part-time employment in the European Union:
- In 2023, 62.7% of employed women worked part-time, compared to 23.4% of men (Eurostat, 2023)
- The average number of weekly working hours was 25.4 for women versus 35.7 for men (CBS, 2023)
This phenomenon is often referred to as the “Dutch part-time paradox” or the “one-and-a-half earner model,” where households typically consist of a male full-time worker and a female part-time worker. This model emerged in the 1980s and 1990s as the Netherlands resolved its unemployment crisis partly through the normalization of part-time work with equal rights and benefits proportional to hours worked (Visser, 2002).
While part-time work provides flexibility, it also has significant implications for economic independence, career advancement, and pension accumulation. Research by the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) found that the lifetime earnings gap between men and women in the Netherlands is approximately 40%, largely attributable to differences in working hours (EIGE, 2021).
Gender Pay Gap
The unadjusted gender pay gap (the difference in average gross hourly earnings) in the Netherlands was 13.5% in 2022, slightly below the EU average of 14.1% (Eurostat, 2022). However, this figure varies significantly by:
- Age: The gap widens considerably with age, reaching over 20% for workers aged 50-60
- Sector: The gap is larger in the private sector (16.1%) than in the public sector (8.2%)
- Education level: The gap is paradoxically larger among highly educated workers
When controlling for factors such as occupation, industry, and working hours (the adjusted pay gap), the difference narrows but remains around 5-7%, indicating the presence of direct discrimination or unmeasured factors (CBS, 2022).
Education and Career Paths
Educational Attainment
Dutch women have outpaced men in educational achievement:
- 54.3% of tertiary education graduates in 2022 were women (Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, 2022)
- Women aged 25-34 are more likely to hold a university degree than their male counterparts (47% versus 41%)
However, significant segregation persists in fields of study:
- Women represent over 70% of students in education, healthcare, and social sciences
- Men comprise over 70% of students in engineering, manufacturing, and construction (CBS, 2022)
This educational segregation contributes to occupational segregation and ultimately to wage disparities, as traditionally female-dominated sectors often offer lower remuneration.
Glass Ceiling and Leadership Positions
Despite high educational attainment, women remain underrepresented in leadership positions:
- Only 13.8% of board members in the largest listed companies were women in 2022, significantly below the EU average of 30.6% (European Institute for Gender Equality, 2022)
- Among the 100 largest Dutch companies, women held 32.5% of supervisory board positions but only 14.3% of executive board positions (Dutch Female Board Index, 2023)
To address this underrepresentation, the Netherlands implemented a gender quota law in 2022, requiring at least one-third of supervisory board seats of listed companies to be held by women.
Work-Life Balance and Care Responsibilities
Childcare and Parental Leave
The Netherlands has a unique approach to childcare and parental leave that both reflects and reinforces traditional gender roles:
- Maternity leave consists of 16 weeks at full pay
- Paternity/partner leave was expanded in 2022 to 9 weeks (6 weeks paid at 70% of salary)
- Parental leave entitles each parent to 26 weeks of unpaid leave until the child turns 8
Compared to Nordic countries, Dutch parental leave policies provide less financial compensation and shorter dedicated father quotas. For example, Sweden offers 480 days of parental leave with 390 days paid at nearly 80% of income and 90 days at a flat rate, with 90 days reserved for each parent (Swedish Social Insurance Agency, 2023).
Time Use and Unpaid Work
Time-use surveys consistently reveal gender disparities in unpaid work:
- Women spend on average 25.9 hours per week on unpaid work (housework, childcare, and other care responsibilities), compared to 16.6 hours for men (SCP, 2022)
- This gender gap of 9.3 hours per week is smaller than in the past (it was 17.7 hours in 1985) but remains significant
Political Representation and Decision-Making
Government and Parliament
Women’s representation in Dutch politics has increased over time but plateaued in recent years:
- Women comprised 39% of members in the House of Representatives (Tweede Kamer) following the 2021 elections
- In the 2023 cabinet, 45% of ministers and state secretaries were women
- At the local level, only 34% of municipal councilors and 21% of mayors were women in 2022 (Ministry of Interior Affairs, 2022)
These figures place the Netherlands slightly above the European average but behind Nordic countries. For instance, Sweden’s parliament is 46% female, and Finland’s government has achieved gender parity (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2023).
Healthcare and Physical Autonomy
Health Outcomes
The Netherlands shows minimal gender differences in overall health indicators:
- Life expectancy at birth in 2022 was 80.5 years for men and 83.2 years for women (CBS, 2023)
- 77% of Dutch men and 73% of women report their health as “good” or “very good”
However, gender-specific issues persist:
- Women are more frequently diagnosed with depression and anxiety disorders (19% versus 9% for men)
- Healthcare services for conditions primarily affecting women, such as endometriosis, often face delays in diagnosis and treatment (Dutch Healthcare Authority, 2022)
Reproductive Rights
The Netherlands has progressive policies regarding reproductive rights:
- Abortion is legal up to 24 weeks of pregnancy and fully covered by health insurance
- Contraception is widely accessible, though not universally covered by basic health insurance for women over 18
- Comprehensive sexuality education is mandatory in schools
These policies have contributed to one of the lowest teen pregnancy and abortion rates globally, at 3 per 1,000 women aged 15-19 (Rutgers, 2022).
Violence Against Women
The prevalence of gender-based violence in the Netherlands:
- 45% of Dutch women have experienced physical and/or sexual violence since the age of 15, comparable to the EU average of 43% (European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2023)
- Domestic violence affects approximately 200,000 adults annually, with women comprising 60% of victims (Dutch Safety Monitor, 2022)
The Netherlands ratified the Istanbul Convention on preventing and combating violence against women in 2015 and has implemented various policy measures, including improved shelter services and stronger prosecution policies.
International Comparisons
Global Gender Gap Index
According to the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report 2023, the Netherlands ranked 16th out of 146 countries, with a score of 0.787 (with 1.0 representing perfect equality). This represents a slight improvement from its 2022 ranking of 28th.
The Netherlands performs particularly well in educational attainment (ranked 1st globally with full parity) and health outcomes (ranked 46th). However, it lags in economic participation (35th) and political empowerment (41st).
By comparison:
- Iceland, Finland, Norway, and Sweden occupy the top four positions globally
- Germany ranks 6th, France 20th, and the United Kingdom 15th
- The United States ranks 43rd
EIGE Gender Equality Index
With 78.8 points out of 100, the Netherlands ranks 3rd in the EU on the Gender Equality Index 2024. Its score is 7.8 points above the EU score1.
Since 2021, the Netherlands has fallen from 2nd to 3rd place in the Index ranking, because the country’s score has increased slightly (+ 0.9 points) while other countries had faster progress. The biggest improvements have been in the domains of power (+ 2.6 points) and knowledge (+ 1.2 points). Since 2010, the score for the Netherlands has increased by 4.8 points, mainly due to improvements in the domain of power (+ 18.4 points).
EIGE Gender Equality Index 2024 – PDF Download
Historical Perspective and Global Trends
Netherlands’ Trajectory
The Netherlands has experienced a distinctive trajectory regarding gender equality:
- Until the 1970s, the Netherlands was relatively traditional, with strong Christian-democratic influence promoting the male breadwinner model
- The 1970s and 1980s saw powerful feminist movements and rapid secularization
- The 1990s brought the “polder model” of consensus decision-making and the normalization of part-time work
- Since 2000, progress has slowed in some areas, with the Netherlands falling behind pioneering Nordic countries
This trajectory differs from Nordic countries, which implemented comprehensive gender equality policies earlier, and from Southern European countries, which transitioned more recently from traditional family models to dual-earner households.
Global Convergence and Divergence
Globally, progress on gender equality shows both convergence and divergence patterns:
- Educational gender gaps have narrowed significantly across most developed countries
- Labor force participation gaps have decreased but remain substantial, with the OECD average gap at 15 percentage points in 2023
- Political representation of women has increased globally, from 11% of parliamentarians in 1995 to 26% in 2023 (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2023)
- Gender pay gaps persist worldwide but with considerable variation (ranging from below 5% to over 40%)
Some areas show divergent trends:
- Nordic countries continue pioneering gender-equal parental leave policies
- Several countries have introduced corporate board quotas, with varying success
- Care responsibilities remain predominantly female across all societies, though the gap is smaller in more gender-equal countries
Policy Approaches and Future Directions
The Dutch Approach
The Netherlands has adopted what scholars term a “choice feminism” approach, emphasizing individual freedom rather than state-driven equality outcomes. This approach:
- Prioritizes personal choice regarding work-life arrangements
- Relies heavily on part-time work as a reconciliation strategy
- Provides good childcare but at relatively high cost to parents compared to Nordic systems
- Focuses on removing formal barriers rather than achieving outcome equality
Critics argue this approach inadvertently reinforces traditional gender patterns under the guise of free choice, while proponents value its respect for diverse preferences and life choices.
Policy Recommendations
Based on research and international best practices, several policy directions could address remaining gender gaps in the Netherlands:
- Parental leave reform: Extending paid, non-transferable father/partner quotas to encourage more equal care distribution
- Childcare accessibility: Reducing parent contributions to formal childcare to incentivize higher female work hours
- Tax system revisions: Reforming the tax system to remove disincentives for second earners
- Transparency measures: Strengthening pay transparency legislation to address the gender pay gap
- Targeted interventions: Addressing sector-specific issues in fields with severe underrepresentation
- Work culture: Promoting full-time work options with flexibility rather than defaulting to part-time arrangements for women
Looking Forward
The gender gap in the Netherlands presents a paradoxical case study: high overall development paired with persistent gender disparities in working hours, sectoral representation, leadership positions, and unpaid work. While significant progress has occurred since the 1980s, the pace of change has slowed in recent decades.
The Dutch experience highlights how cultural norms and policy choices interact to shape gender equality outcomes. The prevalence of part-time work among women exemplifies how solutions to one problem (unemployment) can create or reinforce other inequalities (economic independence gap).
As the Netherlands continues to address these challenges, its experience offers valuable lessons about both the achievements and limitations of different approaches to gender equality. Progress requires addressing both formal barriers and informal norms, with attention to how seemingly neutral policies can produce gendered outcomes. Ultimately, closing the remaining gender gaps will require coordinated efforts across policy domains, from education and labor markets to care infrastructure and corporate governance.
References
Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). (2023). Labor force participation by gender, 2023.
Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). (2022). Gender pay gap in the Netherlands. cbs.nl
Dutch Female Board Index. (2023). Annual Report on Gender Diversity in Corporate Boards. Tilburg University.
European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE). (2022). Gender Equality Index 2022.
European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE). (2021). Lifetime earnings gap in EU Member States. eige.europa.eu
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. (2023). Violence against women: an EU-wide survey. fra.europa.eu
Eurostat. (2023). Part-time employment as percentage of total employment by sex.
Eurostat. (2022). Gender pay gap statistics. ec.europa.eu/eurostat
Inter-Parliamentary Union. (2023). Women in national parliaments. ipu.org
Ministry of Education, Culture and Science. (2022). Education statistics annual report. Government of the Netherlands.
Ministry of Interior Affairs. (2022). State of Local Democracy Report. Government of the Netherlands.
Rutgers. (2022). Sexual Health in the Netherlands. rutgers.nl
Social and Cultural Planning Office (SCP). (2022). Time use in the Netherlands.
Social and Cultural Planning Office (SCP). (2018). Emancipation Monitor. scp.nl
Swedish Social Insurance Agency. (2023). Parental benefit statistics. forsakringskassan.se
Visser, J. (2002). The first part-time economy in the world: a model to be followed? Journal of European Social Policy, 12(1), 23-42.
World Economic Forum. (2023). Global Gender Gap Report 2023. weforum.org
World Economic Forum
Global Gender Gap Report The Netherlands
The Global Gender Gap Report benchmarks countries on their progress towards gender parity across four thematic dimensions: Economic Participation and Opportunity, Educational Attainment, Health and Survival, and Political Empowerment.
2024
Rank: 28 (out of 146 countries)
Score: 0.775
› report
2023
Rank: 28 (out of 146 countries)
Score: 0.777
2021
Rank: 31 (out of 156 countries)
Score: 0.762
2020
Rank: 38 (out of 153 countries)
Score: 0,736
2018
Rank: 27 (out of 149 countries)
Score: 0,747
2017
Rank: 32 (out of 144 countries)
Score: 0.737
2016
Rank: 16 (out of 144 countries)
Score: 0.756
UN Women NL
Women Count Data Hub: Netherlands
Globally, some progress on women’s rights has been achieved. In the Netherlands, the adolescent birth rate is 2.6 per 1,000 women aged 15–19 as of 2018, down from 2.9 per 1,000 in 2017. As of February 2021, 33.3% of seats in parliament were held by women.
Country Fact Sheet
> data.unwomen.org/country/netherlands
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> nu.nl/kamer-stemt-in-met-vrouwenquotum-van-30-procent-in-top-bedrijfsleven
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> tias.edu/kennis/dossiers/detail/female-board-index
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> volkskrant.nl/eens-een-dubbeltje-altijd-een-dubbeltje
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> wetenschappelijkbureaugroenlinks.nl/hoe-meer-vrouwen-des-te-lager-het-salaris